Quinine is a drug used to treat malaria and babesiosis. This includes malaria treatment due to Plasmodium falciparum which is resistant to chloroquine when artesunate is not available. Although used for restless legs syndrome, it is not recommended for this purpose because of the risk of side effects. Can be drunk or used intravenously. Malaria resistance to quinine occurs in certain areas of the world. Quinine is also an ingredient in tonic water that gives it a bitter taste.
Common side effects include headache, ringing ears, difficulty seeing, and sweating. More severe side effects include deafness, low blood platelets, and an irregular heartbeat. Usage can make people more susceptible to sunburn. Although it is unclear whether the use during pregnancy causes harm to infants, the use to treat malaria during pregnancy is still recommended. Quinine is an alkaloid, a natural chemical compound. How it works as a drug is not entirely clear.
Quinine was first isolated in 1820 from quinine bark. Skin extract has been used to treat malaria since at least 1632. This is a List of Essential Medicines of the World Health Organization, the most effective and safe medicines needed in the health system. Wholesale prices in developing countries are around US $ 1.70 to $ 3.40 per treatment. In the United States, treatment is over $ 200.
Video Quinine
Usage
Medical
In 2006, it was no longer recommended by WHO (World Health Organization) as first-line treatment for malaria, and it should be used only when artemisinin is not available. Quinine is also used to treat lupus and arthritis.
In the past, quinine is often prescribed as an off-label treatment for leg cramps at night, but this is becoming less common as the Food and Drug Administration warns that this practice is associated with life-threatening side effects.
Available form
Quinine is a basic amine and is usually given as salt. Various existing preparations include hydrochloride, dihydrochloride, sulfate, bisulfate and gluconate. In the United States, commercially available quinine sulphates are available in 324-mg tablets under the Qualaquin brand name.
All of the quinine salts may be administered orally or intravenously (IV); quinine gluconate may also be administered intramuscularly (IM) or rectally (PR). The main problem with anal route is that the dose can be removed before it is completely absorbed; in practice, this is corrected by giving half the dose again. There is no preparation for licensed quinine injections in the US; quinidine is used instead.
Beverage
Quinine is a component of taste from tonic water and a bitter lemon drink mixer. On a soda gun behind many bars, tonic water is indicated by the letter "Q" which represents quinine.
Traditionally, the bitter taste of the anti-malarial quinine tonic caused British colonials in India to mix it with gin, thus creating iconic gin and cocktail tonics, which are still popular today. Currently, the quantity of quinine in tonics is much lower and drinking it against malaria is useless. Quinine is an ingredient in tonic water and lime juice. In the US, quinine is listed as an ingredient in several flavors of the Snapple Diet, including Cranberry-Raspberry.
In France, quinine is a substance of apÃÆ' Â © ritif known as quinquina or "Cap Corse", and wine-based apÃÆ' Â © ritif, Dubonnet. In Spain, quinine ("Peruvian skin") is sometimes mixed into a sweet Malaga wine, later called "Malaga Quina". In Italy, the traditional Barolo Chinato wine tastes with local turmeric and spices and is served as a digestif. In Canada and Italy, quinine is the ingredient in the carbonated chinotto beverage Brio and San Pellegrino. In Scotland, A.G. Barr uses quinine as an ingredient in carbonated and caffeinated drinks Irn-Bru. In Uruguay and Argentina, quinine is the ingredient of PepsiCo tonic water called Paso de los Toros. In Denmark, used as an ingredient in carbonated sports drinks Faxe Kondi made by Royal Unibrew.
As a flavoring agent in beverages, quinine is limited to less than 83 parts per million and 100 mg/l in the United States and European Union, respectively.
Scientific
Quinine (and quinidine) is used as a chiral mozet for ligands used in Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation and also for many other chiral catalyst backbones. Since the quantum fluorescence results are relatively constant and well known, quinine is used in photochemistry as a general fluorescence standard.
Maps Quinine
Contraindications
Quinine can cause abnormal heart rhythm, and should be avoided if possible in patients with atrial fibrillation, conduction defects, or heart block. Quinine can cause haemolysis in G6PD deficiency (inherited deficiency), but this risk is small and doctors should not hesitate to use quinine in patients with G6PD deficiency when there is no alternative.
Adverse effects
Quinine can cause serious and life-threatening blood and cardiovascular reactions including low platelet counts and hemolytic-uremic/thrombocytopenic purpura (HUS/TTP) syndromes, long QT syndrome and other serious cardiac arrhythmias including torsades de pointes, blackwater fever, coagulation intravascular dissemination , leukopenia, and neutropenia. Some people who have developed TTP because quinine have developed kidney failure.
It can also lead to serious hypersensitivity reactions including anaphylactic shock, urticaria, serious skin rashes, including Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis, angioedema, facial edema, bronchospasm, granulomatous hepatitis, and itching.
The most common side effects involve a group of symptoms called cinchonism; almost all people who use quinine have mild cinchonism, which can include headache, vasodilation and sweating, nausea, tinnitus, hearing loss, vertigo or dizziness, blurred vision, and disorders in color perception. The more severe cynchonism includes vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain, deafness, blindness, and heart rhythm disorders. Cinchonism much less frequent when quinine is given by mouth, but quinine orally is not well tolerated (quinine very bitter and many patients will vomit after swallowing the tablet quinine): Other drugs, such as Fansidar (sulfadoxine with pyrimethamine) or Malarone (proguanil with atovaquone) , often used when oral therapy is required. Quinine ethyl carbonate is tasteless and odorless, but is only commercially available in Japan. Blood glucose monitoring, electrolytes and heart are not needed when quinine is given by mouth.
Action mechanism
Quinine is theorized to be toxic to Plasmodium falciparum by disrupting the parasite's ability to dissolve and metabolize hemoglobin. Like other quinoline antinarkal drugs, the mechanism of quinine work has not been fully resolved. The most widely accepted hypothesis of the action is based on well-studied, closely-related quinoline drugs, chloroquine. This model involves inhibiting the biocrystallization of hemozoin in the Heme Detoxification pathway, which facilitates cytotoxic heme aggregation. Cytotoxic free hormones accumulate in the parasite, causing their death.
Chemistry
The UV absorption of the quinine peak is about 350Ã, nm (in UVA). The peak fluorescent emission is about 460 n (bright blue/cyan). Quinine is very fluorescent (quantum yield ~ 0.58) in 0.1 M sulfuric acid solution.
Synthesis
The cinchona tree remains the only source of quinine that is economically practical. However, under wartime pressure, research on its synthetic production was done. A formal chemical synthesis was performed in 1944 by the American chemist R.B. Woodward and W.E. Doering. Since then, some of the more efficient total synthesis of quinine has been achieved, but none of them can compete in economic terms with alkaloid isolation from natural sources. The first synthetic organic dye, mauveine, was invented by William Henry Perkin in 1856 when he attempted to synthesize quinine.
Natural events
Skin Remijia contains 0.5-2% quinine. The skin is cheaper than the skin of Cinchona , and because it has a strong flavor used to make tonic water.
History
Quinine is used as a muscle relaxant by Quechua, originating from Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador, to stop shivering due to low temperatures. Quechua will mix the bark of the cinchona tree with sweetened water to compensate for the bitter taste, resulting in tonic water.
The Jesuits were the first to bring cinchona to Europe. The Spanish were aware of the nature of the cinchona bark drug by the 1570s or earlier: NicolÃÆ'¡s Monardes (1571) and Juan Fragoso (1572) both described trees that were later identified as quinine trees and whose skins were used to produce drink to treat diarrhea. Quinine has been used in a form not extracted by Europeans at least since the beginning of the 17th century. It was first used to treat malaria in Rome in 1631. During the seventeenth century, malaria became endemic in the swamps and around the city of Rome. Malaria is responsible for the deaths of several popes, countless cardinals and countless common Roman citizens. Most of the priests trained in Rome have seen the victims of malaria and are familiar with the chills brought by the phase of fever illness. The Jesuit brother, Agostino Salumbrino (1564-1642), a pharmacist with training living in Lima, observed Quechua using quinine bark for that purpose. While its effect in treating malaria (and hence chills due to malaria) is unrelated to its effect in controlling the chills from hardness, it remains a successful cure for malaria. On the first occasion, Salumbrino sent a small number to Rome to be tested as a malaria treatment. In the following years, cinchona leather, known as the Jesuit leather or Peruvian skin, became one of the most valuable commodities shipped from Peru to Europe. When King Charles II was cured of malaria at the end of the 17th century with quinine, it became popular in London. Fixed antimalarial drugs of choice until the 1940s, when other drugs took over.
The most effective quinine form in treating malaria was discovered by Charles Marie de La Condamine in 1737. In 1820, French researchers Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimà ©  © Caventou first isolated quinine from the bark of the genus Cinchona - maybe Cinchona officinalis - and then name the substance. This name is derived from the original Quechua (Inca) word for quinine bark, quina or quina-quina, meaning "bark" or "sacred bark". Before 1820, bark was dried first, ground into fine powder, then mixed into liquid (usually wine) which was then drunk. The use of quinine on a large scale as malaria prophylaxis began around 1850; for example in 1853 Paul Briquet published a brief history and literary discussion on "quinquina".
Quinine also plays an important role in African colonization by Europeans. Quinine has been said to be the main reason African stop is known as "white man's grave". One historian declared, "it is a quinine efficacy that gives new colonists a chance to enter the Gold Coast, Nigeria and other parts of West Africa."
To defend their monopoly on the bark of the cinchona tree, Peru and surrounding countries began to ban the export of quinine and stinging seeds that began in the early 19th century. The Dutch government continued to attempt to smuggle seeds, and by the end of the 19th century the Dutch had succeeded in growing crops in their plantations in Indonesia. Soon they became the main supplier of the factory, and in 1913 they set up the Kina Bureau, a kinkona producer cartel charged with price and production control. In the 1930s Dutch plantations in Java produced 22 million pounds of quinine bark, or 97% of world quinine production. The US attempts to prosecute the Kina Bureau proved unsuccessful. During World War II, the Allied forces were cut off from their quinary supply when the Germans conquered the Netherlands and Japan over the Philippines and Indonesia. The United States succeeded in obtaining four million quinine seeds from the Philippines and began operating a quinine plantation in Costa Rica. However, such inventories arrive too late; Tens of thousands of US troops in Africa and the South Pacific died from lack of quinine. Despite controlling supplies, Japan did not use quinine effectively, and thousands of Japanese troops in the southwest Pacific died as a result. Quinine remains the choice of antimalarial drugs until after World War II, when other drugs, such as chloroquine, have fewer side effects to replace them.
Bromo Quinine is a branded cold tablet containing quinine, produced by Grove Laboratories. They were first marketed in 1889 and available until at least the 1960s.
Society and culture
Rule
From 1969 to 1992, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) received 157 reports of health problems related to quinine use, including 23 that resulted in death. In 1994, the FDA banned the marketing of over-the-counter quinine as a treatment for nocturnal foot cramps. Pfizer Pharmaceuticals has sold the Legatrin brand name for this purpose. Also sold as Softgel (by SmithKlineBeecham) as Q-vel. Doctors may still prescribe quinine, but the FDA has ordered the company to stop marketing of unapproved drug products containing quinine. The FDA also warned consumers about using quinine outside labels to treat leg cramps. Quinine is approved for the treatment of malaria, but it is also commonly prescribed to treat leg cramps and similar conditions. Because malaria is life-threatening, the risks associated with quinine use are considered acceptable when used to treat the suffering.
Although Legatrin is banned by the FDA for the treatment of leg cramps, drug manufacturer URL Mutual has branded a quinine-containing drug called Qualaquin. Marketed as a treatment for malaria and sold in the United States only by prescription. In 2004, the CDC reported only 1,347 confirmed cases of malaria in the United States.
Cutting agent
Quinine is sometimes detected as a cutting agent in street drugs such as cocaine and heroin.
Other animals
Quinine is used as a treatment for Cryptocaryon irritants (commonly referred to as white spot, crypto or marine ich) infection of marine aquarium fish.
See also
- Malaria history
- Luis JerÃÆ'³nimo de Cabrera, 4th Count ChinchÃÆ'³n and Jesuit Leather, for introductory story to Europe
- Warburg stains
- Chloroquine
References
Further reading
- Schroeder-Lein, Glenna (2008). Encyclopedia of Civil War drugs . Armonk, NY: ME: Sharpe, Inc.
- Hobhouse, Henry. The Seed of the Six Changing Plants That Changed Humans . 2005. ISBNÃ, 1-59376-049-3.
- Stockwell, J. R. (1982). "Aeromedical considerations of malaria prophylaxis with mefloquine hydrochloride". Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine . 3 (10): 1011-3.
- Wolff RS, Wirtschafter D, Adkinson C (June 1997). "Ocular toxicity is treated with hyperbaric oxygen". Undersea Hyperb Med . 24 (2): 131-4. PMID 9171472 . Retrieved 2008-08-13 .
- Slater, Leo (2009). War and disease: biomedical research on malaria in the 20th century . New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
- The Lords of Industry, Modern History Sourcebook: Henry Demarest Lloyd: North American Reviews 331 (June 1884)
External links
- Quinine in the International Program on Chemical Security
- Catalytic Asymmetric Synthesis of Quinine and Quinidine
- Summary of an article on Quinine's history at Chemical and Engineering News
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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