A psychoactive drug , psychopharmaca , or psychotropic are chemicals that alter brain function and produce a change in perception, mood, awareness, cognition, or behavior. These substances can be used medically; recreation; to deliberately improve performance or alter one's consciousness; as entheogen; for ritual, spiritual, or shamanic purposes; or for research. Several categories of psychoactive drugs, which have therapeutic value, are prescribed by doctors and other health practitioners. Examples include anesthesia, analgesics, anticonvulsant and antiparkinson drugs and drugs used to treat neuropsychiatric disorders, such as antidepressants, anxiolytics, antipsychotics, and stimulant drugs. Some psychoactive substances may be used in detoxification and rehabilitation programs for people who depend on or addicted to other psychoactive drugs.
Psychoactive substances often carry subjective (though this can be objectively observed) changes in the awareness and mood that the user can find useful and enjoyable (eg, euphoria or a sense of relaxation) or beneficial (eg an increase in alertness) and thereby strengthen. Substances that are both beneficial and positively reinforcing have the potential to induce an addiction state - the use of compulsive drugs in spite of negative consequences. In addition, the ongoing use of some substances may result in physical or psychological dependence or both, related to their respective somatic or psychological-emotional withdrawal status. Drug rehabilitation efforts to reduce addiction, through a combination of psychotherapy, support groups, and other psychoactive substances. On the contrary, certain psychoactive drugs may be so unpleasant that the person will never use the substance again. This is especially true for certain bullies (eg Jimson Weed), strong dissociation (eg Salvia divinorum ), and classical psychedelics (eg LSD, psilocybin), in the form of "bad travel".
Misuse of psychoactive drugs, addictions and addictions has resulted in legal measures and moral debates. Government controls on manufacturing, supply and prescription efforts to reduce the use of troubled medical drugs. Ethical concerns have also been raised about the overuse of these drugs clinically, and about their marketing by producers. Popular campaigns to allow specific drug use (eg cannabis) are also underway.
Video Psychoactive drug
History
The use of psychoactive drugs can be traced to prehistory. There is archaeological evidence about the use of psychoactive substances (mostly plants) originating from at least 10,000 years, and historical evidence of cultural usage over the last 5,000 years. Chewing coca leaf, for example, dates back more than 8,000 years ago in Peruvian society.
Drug use is one of the important aspects of psychoactive drug use. However, some argue that the drive to change one's consciousness is as important as the drive to quench thirst, hunger or sexual desire. Proponents of this belief argue that the history of drug use and even the desire of children to spin, swing, or slide show that the urge to change one's state of mind is universal.
One of the first to articulate this point of view, set aside from the context of medicine, was American author Fitz Hugh Ludlow (1836-1870) in his book The Hasheesh Eater (1857):
[D] carpets can bring humans into an environment of divine experience and thus can take us from our personal fate and the daily life of our lives into higher forms of reality. However, it is necessary to understand exactly what is meant by the use of drugs. We do not mean purely physical desires... That's what we're talking about is something much higher, the knowledge of the possibility of a soul to enter into a lighter form, and to catch a glimpse of deeper insight and greater vision than The beauty, the truth, and the divinity of us are usually able to spy the gap in our prison cell. But not many drugs have such calming power. The entire catalog, at least to the extent that the study has written so far, may include only opium, marijuana, and in rare cases of alcohol, which has an enlightening effect only on very special characters.
This relationship is not limited to humans. A number of animals consume a variety of psychoactive plants, animals, berries and even fermented fruits, intoxicated, like a cat after consuming catnip. The traditional legends of sacred plants often contain references to animals that introduce humans to their use. Psychoactive animals and plants seem to have evolved, perhaps explaining why chemicals and their receptors are present in the nervous system.
During the 20th century, governments around the world initially responded to the use of recreational drugs by banning them and using, supplying, or trafficking a crime. A noteworthy example of this is the Prohibition in the United States, where alcohol is made illegal for 13 years. However, many governments, government officials and people in law enforcement have concluded that drug use can not be adequately discontinued through criminalization. Organizations such as Law Enforcement Against the Prohibition (LEAP) have come to such conclusions, believe:
[T] existing drug policies have failed in the intended purpose of addressing the problem of crime, drug abuse, addiction, adolescent drug use, stopping the flow of illegal drugs into the country and internal sales and drug use. By fighting against drugs, the government has improved people's problems and made them much worse. A regulatory and non-banning system is a less dangerous, more ethical, and more effective public policy.
In some countries, there have been steps towards harm reduction by health services, where the use of illicit drugs is not excused or promoted, but services and support are provided to ensure users have sufficient factual information available, and that the negative effects of their use are minimized. That is the case of Portuguese drug policy on decriminalization, which reaches its ultimate goal of reducing the ill effects of drug abuse.
Maps Psychoactive drug
Destination
Psychoactive substances are used by humans for a number of different purposes to achieve a particular goal. This use varies widely between cultures. Some substances may have controlled or illegal use while others may have shamanic purposes, and others are used as medicines. Another example is social drinking, nootropic, or sleep aids. Caffeine is the most consumed psychoactive substance in the world, but unlike many others, caffeine is legal and is not regulated in almost any jurisdiction. In North America, 90% of adults consume caffeine every day.
Psychoactive drugs are divided into different groups according to their pharmacological effects. Commonly used psychoactive drugs and groups:
- Anxiolytics
-
- Example: benzodiazepines, barbiturates
- Empathogen-entactogens
-
- Example: MDMA (Ecstasy), MDA, 6-APB, AMP
- Stimulants ("top"). This category consists of substances that awaken, stimulate the mind, and can cause euphoria, but does not affect perception.
-
- Example: amphetamine, caffeine, cocaine, nicotine
Depressants ("downers"), including sedatives, hypnotics, and opioids. This category includes all soothing reducing substances, sleep-inducing, anxiety-reducing, anesthesia, which sometimes induce perceptual changes, such as dream images, and also often evokes feelings of euphoria. -
- Examples: ethanol (alcoholic beverages), opioids, barbiturates, benzodiazepines.
- Hallucinogens, including psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants. This category includes all substances that produce different changes in perception, sensation of space and time, and emotional state
-
- Examples: psilocybin, LSD, Salvia divinorum and nitrous oxide.
- Antidepressants treat disorders such as clinical depression, dysthymia, anxiety, eating disorders, and impaired personality thresholds.
- Stimulants, used to treat disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy, and for weight loss.
- Antipsychotics, used to treat psychotic symptoms, such as those associated with schizophrenia or severe mania, or in addition to relieve clinical depression.
- Mood stabilizers, used to treat bipolar disorder and schizoaffective disorders.
- Anxiolytics, used to treat anxiety disorders.
- Depressants, used as hypnotics, sedatives, and anesthetics, depend on the dose.
- Stimulants, which activate the central nervous system. These are used recreatively for their euphoric effects.
- Hallucinogens (psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants), which induce perceptual and cognitive changes.
- Hypnotics, which suppress the central nervous system.
- Opioid analgesics, which also suppress the central nervous system. These are used in recreation because of their euphoric effects.
- Inhalants, in the form of gas aerosols, or solvents, are inhaled as vapors because of their stupefying effect. Many inhalansia also fall into the above categories (such as nitrous oxide which is also an analgesic).
- Dose
- Set
- Settings
- Notes
- Neuroscience Use and Addiction of Psychoactive Substances by WHO
Usage
Anesthesia
General anesthesia is a class of psychoactive drugs used in people to block physical pain and other sensations. Most anesthetics induce unconsciousness, allowing people to undergo medical procedures such as surgery without physical pain or emotional trauma. To induce unconsciousness, anesthesia affects the GABA and NMDA systems. For example, propofol is a GABA agonist, and ketamine is a NMDA receptor antagonist.
Pain Management
Psychoactive drugs are often prescribed to deal with pain. The subjective experience of pain is mainly regulated by endogenous opioid peptides. Thus, pain can often be managed using psychoactivity that operates on this neurotransmitter system, also known as opioid receptor agonist. These class drugs can be highly addictive, and include opiate narcotics, such as morphine and codeine. NSAIDs, such as aspirin and ibuprofen, are also analgesics. These agents also reduce eicosanoid-mediated inflammation by inhibiting cyclooxygenase enzymes.
Mental disorders
Psychiatric drugs are psychoactive drugs prescribed for the management of mental and emotional disorders, or to help overcome challenging behavior. There are six main classes of psychiatric treatment:
In addition, some psychoactive substances are currently used to treat various addictions. These include acamprosate or naltrexone in the treatment of alcoholism, or methadone or buprenorphine maintenance therapy in cases of opioid addiction.
Exposure to psychoactive drugs may cause changes in the brain that fight or add to some of its effects; these changes may be useful or harmful. However, there is a large amount of evidence that the relapse rate of mental disorders is negatively related to the length of the treatment regimen followed closely (ie, the relapse rate decreases substantially over time), and to a much greater degree than placebo.
Recreation
Many psychoactive substances are used for the effects of changing their perceptions and moods, including those who accept use in medicine and psychiatry. Examples of psychoactive substances include caffeine, alcohol, cocaine, LSD, and cannabis. Commonly used recreational classes include:
In some modern and ancient cultures, drug use is seen as a status symbol. Recreational drugs are seen as status symbols in settings such as at nightclubs and parties. For example, in ancient Egypt, the gods were generally described as holding hallucinogenic plants.
Because there is controversy about the regulation of recreational drugs, there is an ongoing debate about drug bans. Critics of the ban believe that the regulation of recreational drug use is a violation of autonomy and personal freedom. In the United States, critics have noted that the prohibition or regulation of drug and spiritual use may be unconstitutional, and cause more harm than is prevented.
Ritual and spiritual
Certain psychoactive, especially hallucinogens, have been used for religious purposes since prehistoric times. Native Americans have used a peyote cactus containing mescaline for religious ceremonies for 5700 years. Muscular muscaria containing muscimol is used for ritual purposes throughout prehistoric Europe.
The use of entheogen for religious purposes reappeared in the West during the counter-cultural movements of the 1960s and 70s. Under the leadership of Timothy Leary, spiritual movements and new intentions began using LSD and other hallucinogens as a tool to access deeper inner exploration. In the United States, the use of peyote for ritual purposes is reserved only for members of the Native American Church, who are permitted to process and distribute peyote. However, the true use of peyote religion, regardless of one's personal ancestor, is protected in Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, and Oregon.
Military
Psychoactive drugs have been used in military applications as non-lethal weapons. In World War II, between 1939 and 1945, 60 million amphetamine pills were made for use by soldiers. Both US military and civilian intelligence officials are known to have used psychoactive drugs while interrogating captives captured in War on Terror. In July 2012, Jason Leopold and Jeffrey Kaye, psychologists and human rights workers, have complied with the Freedom of Information Act request that the use of psychoactive drugs during interrogation is a long-standing practice. Prisoners and former prisoners have reported medical staff who collaborate with interrogators to drug prisoners with powerful psychoactive drugs before being interrogated since the release of the first prisoner. In May 2003, the recently released Pakistani prisoner Sha Mohammed Alikhel described the routine use of psychoactive drugs. He said that Jihan Wali, a prisoner kept in a nearby cell, was made catatonic through the use of these medicines.
The military justice system is also known to use psychoactive drugs to gain confidence. (A.S. vs. Juillerat)
Administrative route
Psychoactive drugs are administered through oral ingestion as tablets, capsules, powders, liquids, and beverages; by injection with subcutaneous, intramuscular, and intravenous routes; through the rectum with suppositories and enemas; and through inhalation by smoking, evaporation and insufflation ("grunting"). The efficiency of each method of administration varies from drug to drug.
Psychiatric drugs fluoxetine, quetiapine, and lorazepam are ingested orally in tablets or capsules. Alcohol and caffeine are ingested in the form of beverages; nicotine and marijuana smoked or eliminated; peyote and psilocybin mushrooms digested in botanical or dried form; and crystal medicines such as cocaine and methamphetamine are usually insufflated (inhaled or "grunted").
Determinant effect
Dose theories, arrangements, and settings are useful models for dealing with the effects of psychoactive substances, especially in controlled therapeutic settings as well as in recreational use. Dr. Timothy Leary, based on his own experience and systematic observations of psychedelics, developed this theory with his colleagues Ralph Metzner, and Richard Alpert (Ram Dass) in the 1960s.
The first factor, dose, has been denied since ancient times, or at least since Paracelsus said, "Doses make poison." Some compounds are beneficial or pleasant when taken in small quantities, but are dangerous, deadly, or cause discomfort in higher doses.
Set is the internal attitude and constitution of the person, including hope, desire, fear, and sensitivity to the drug. This factor is very important for hallucinogens, which have the ability to make the conscious experience out of the subconscious. In traditional cultures, sets are formed primarily by the world view, the health and genetic characteristics that all members of the culture possess.
The third aspect is the arrangement, relating to the environment, the place, and the time at which the experience takes place.
This theory clearly states that the effect is equally the result of chemical, pharmacological, psychological, and physical effects. The model proposed by Timothy Leary applies to psychedelics, although it also applies to other psychoactive.
Effects
Psychoactive drugs operate by affecting a person's neurochemistry temporarily, which in turn causes changes in mood, cognition, perception, and behavior. There are many ways in which psychoactive drugs can affect the brain. Each drug has specific action on one or more neurotransmitters or neuroreceptor in the brain.
Drugs that increase activity in certain neurotransmitter systems are called agonists. They act by increasing the synthesis of one or more neurotransmitters, by reducing reuptake from synapses, or by mimicking action by binding directly to the postsynaptic receptors. Drugs that reduce the activity of neurotransmitters are called antagonists, and operate by interrupting the synthesis or blocking postsinaptic receptors so that neurotransmitters can not bind them.
Exposure to psychoactive substances can cause changes in the structure and function of neurons, because the nervous system tries to rebuild homeostasis disturbed by the presence of drugs (see also, neuroplasticity). Exposure to antagonists for certain neurotransmitters can increase the number of receptors for the neurotransmitter or the receptor itself can become more responsive to neurotransmitters; this is called sensitization. In contrast, overstimulation of receptors for certain neurotransmitters can lead to a decrease in both the amount and sensitivity of these receptors, a process called desensitization or tolerance. Sensitization and desensitization are more likely to occur with long-term exposure, although they may occur after just one exposure. These processes are considered to play a role in drug dependence and addiction. Physical dependence on antidepressants or anxiolytics can lead to worse depression or anxiety, respectively, as withdrawal symptoms. Unfortunately, because clinical depression (also called major depressive disorder) is often referred to as depression, antidepressants are often requested by and prescribed for depressed patients, but not clinically depressed.
The affected neurotransmitter system
The following is a brief table of famous drugs and major neurotransmitters, their receptors, or methods of action. It should be noted that many drugs act on more than one transmitter or receptor in the brain.
Dependency and dependency
Psychoactive drugs are often associated with drug addiction or addiction. Dependence can be divided into two types: psychological dependence, in which a user experiences psychological or emotional withdrawal symptoms (eg, depression) and physical dependence, where the user must use drugs to avoid physical withdrawal symptoms that are physically uncomfortable or even medically hazardous.. Beneficial and reinforcing drugs are addictive; the properties of these drugs are mediated through the activation of the mesolimbic dopamine pathway, especially the nucleus accumbens. Not all addictive drugs are associated with physical dependence, for example, amphetamines, and not all drugs that produce physical dependence are addictive drugs, such as caffeine.
Many professionals, self-help groups and businesses specializing in drug rehab, with varying degrees of success, and many parents are trying to influence their children's actions and choices about psychoactive.
Common forms of rehabilitation include psychotherapy, support groups and pharmacotherapy, which use psychoactive substances to reduce the desires and symptoms of psychological withdrawal when a user undergoes detoxification. Methadone, itself an opioid and psychoactive substance, is a common treatment for heroin addiction, like other opioids, buprenorphine. Recent research on addiction has shown some promise in using psychedelics such as ibogaine to treat and even cure drug addiction, although this has not become widely accepted practice.
Legality
The legality of psychoactive drugs has become controversial through much of the recent history ; The Second Opium War and Prohibition are two historical examples of the legal controversy surrounding psychoactive drugs. However, in recent years, the most influential document regarding the legality of psychoactive drugs is the Single Convention on Narcotics Drugs, an international treaty signed in 1961 as the United Nations Act. Signed by 73 countries including the United States, the Soviet Union, India and the United Kingdom, the Single Convention on Narcotics Drugs establish Schedule for the legality of each drug and make international treaties against recreational recreational drugs by fighting the sale, trade and use of drugs scheduled. All the countries that signed the treaty passed a law to apply these rules within their borders. However, some countries that have signed the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, such as the Netherlands, are more lenient with this law enforcement.
In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has authority over all drugs, including psychoactive drugs. The FDA regulates which psychoactive drugs are sold freely and that are only available by prescription. However, certain psychoactive drugs, such as alcohol, tobacco, and drugs listed in the Single Convention of Narcotic Drugs shall be subject to criminal law. The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 regulates recreational drugs outlined in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. Alcohol is regulated by state governments, but the federal National Minimum Boundary Act punishes states for not following the national drinking age. Tobacco is also regulated by all fifty state governments. Most people accept restrictions and restrictions on certain drugs, especially "hard" drugs, which are illegal in most countries.
In the medical context, psychoactive drugs as a treatment for disease are widespread and generally accepted. There is little controversy regarding counter anti-psychoactive drugs in antiemetics and antitussives. Psychoactive drugs are usually prescribed for patients with psychiatric disorders. However, certain critics believe that certain psychoactive prescriptions, such as antidepressants and stimulants, are excessive and threaten the assessment and autonomy of the patient.
See also
References
External links
Source of the article : Wikipedia
0 Comments