Opium ( poppy tear , under the scientific name: Lachryma papaveris ) is a dry sap obtained from opium poppy (scientific name: Papaver somniferum ). Approximately 12 percent of the opium latex consists of an analgesic alkaloid morphine, which is chemically processed to produce heroin and other synthetic opioids for drug use and for illegal drug trafficking. Latex also contains tightly linked opiates of codeine and thebaine, and non-analgesic alkaloids such as papaverine and noscapine. The traditional, intensive-work method for obtaining latex is to scratch ("score") the unripe seed pod (fruit) by hand; sap out and dry into a yellowish residue which is then removed and dehydrated. The word "meconium" (derived from the Greek for "opium-like", but now used to refer to baby feces) historically refers to the weaker preparations made from other parts of the opium poppy or different poppy species.
The method of production has not changed since ancient times. Through selective breeding of Papaver somniferum plants, the phenanthrene content of morphine alkaloids, codeine, and to the lower levels of thebaine has been greatly increased. In modern times, many of thebaine, which often serve as raw materials for synthesis for hydrocodones, hydromorphones, and other semisynthetic opiates, derive from extracting Papaver orientale or Papaver bracteatum.
For illegal drug trafficking, morphine is extracted from opium latex, reducing mass weight by up to 88%. Then converted into two to four times stronger heroin, and increase its value by the same factor. Weight and reduced amount make it easier to smuggle.
Video Opium
History
The Mediterranean region contains the earliest archaeological evidence of human usage; the earliest known seeds from more than 5000 BC in Neolithic times with goals such as food, anesthesia, and ritual. Evidence from ancient Greece shows that opium is consumed in several ways, including inhalation of vapors, suppositories, poultices, and in combination with hemlocks for suicide. The Sumerians, Assyrians, Egyptians, Indians, Minoans, Greeks, Romans, Persians and the Arab Empire all used widespread opium, which was the most powerful form of painkillers then available, allowing the ancient surgeon to perform a prolonged surgical procedure. Opium is mentioned in the most important medical texts of the ancient world, including the Ebers Papyrus and the writings of Dioscorides, Galen, and Avicenna. The widespread medical use of unprocessed opium continues through the American Civil War before giving way to morphine and its successors, which can be injected at precisely controlled doses.
Ancient usage (pre-500 CE)
Opium has been actively collected since prehistoric times, since about 3400 BC. The common name for men in Afghanistan is "Redey", which in Pashto means "poppy". This term may be derived from the Sanskrit words rddhi and hrdya , which means "magical", "a kind of medicinal plant", and "pleasant heart", respectively. The Asian upper belts of Afghanistan, Pakistan, northern India and Burma are still the largest opium stocks in the world.
At least 17 findings of Papaver somniferum from Neolithic settlements have been reported throughout Switzerland, Germany, and Spain, including the placement of a large number of poppy seed capsules at the burial site ( Cueva de los MurciÃÆ'Â © lagos , or "Bat Cave", in Spanish), which has carbon-14 dated to 4200 BC. Many findings from P. somniferum or P. setigerum of the Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have also been reported. The first known poppy cultivation was in Mesopotamia, around 3400 BC, by the Sumerians, who called the plant hul gil , "a plant of joy". The tablets found in Nippur, the spiritual center of Sumeria south of Baghdad, illustrate the collection of poppy juice in the morning and its use in opium production. Cultivation continued in the Middle East by the Assyrians, who also collected poppy juice in the morning after printing pods with iron spoons; they call juice aratpa-pal , probably the root Papaver . Opium production continues under the Babylonians and Egyptians.
Opium is used with hemlock poison to make people fast and painlessly dead, but also used in medicine. Spongia somnifera , a sponge soaked in opium, is used during surgery. The Egyptians worked on opium thebaicum in the famous opium field around 1300 BC. Opium is traded from Egypt by the Phoenicians and Minoans to destinations around the Mediterranean Sea, including Greece, Carthage and Europe. In 1100 BC, opium was cultivated in Cyprus, where quality scalpels were used to count poppies, and opium was cultivated, traded, and smoked. Opium was also mentioned after the Persian conquest of the Assyrian and Babylonian lands of the 6th century BC.
From the earliest findings, opium seems to have ritual significance, and anthropologists have speculated that the ancient priests may have used the drug as a testament to the power of healing. In Egypt, the use of opium is generally limited to priests, wizards and warriors, its discovery is credited to Thoth, and is said to have been given by Isis to Ra as a treatment for headaches. The figure of Minoan's "narcotic goddess", wearing a crown of three poppy opium flowers, c. 1300 SM, has been found from Sanctuary of Gazi, Crete, along with a simple smoking tool. The Greek god Hypnos (Sleep), Nyx (Night) and Thanatos (Death) is described circled poppies or holding them. Poppies also frequently adorned the statues of Apollo, Asklepios, Pluto, Demeter, Aphrodite, Kybele and Isis, symbolizing nocturnal breakout.
Islamic Society (500-1500 CE)
When the power of the Roman Empire declined, the land in the south, and the east of the Mediterranean became part of the Islamic Empire. Some Muslims believe the hadith, as in Sahih Bukhari, forbids any intoxicating substances, although the use of alcoholic liquors has been widely permitted by scholars. Dioscorides' five volume De Materia Medica, a pharmacopoeial precursor, is still used (with some improvements in the Arabic version) from the 1st - 16th centuries, and describes opium and its various uses prevalent in the ancient world.
Between 400 and 1200 AD, Arab traders introduced opium to China, and to India in 700. The Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi ("Rhazes", 845-930 CE) manages laboratories and schools in Baghdad, and becomes a student and critic Galen; he exploited opium in anesthesia and recommended its use for melancholy treatment in Fii ma-la-yahdara al-tabib , "In the Absence of Doctors", a house-directed home medical manual for self-care if doctors not available.
The famous Andalusian ophthalmologic surgeon Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi ("Abulcasis", 936-1013 CE) relied on opium and mandrake as surgical anesthesia and writing treatise, al-Tasrif , which influenced medical thinking until the century 16th.
Doctor Persia, Ab? 'Al? al-Husayn ibn Sina ("Avicenna") describes opium as the most powerful of stupefacients, compared to mandrakes and other highly effective herbs, in The Canon of Medicine. This text contains the effects of opiate drugs, such as analgesia, hypnosis, antitussive effects, gastrointestinal effects, cognitive effects, respiratory depression, neuromuscular disorders, and sexual dysfunction. It also refers to the potential of opium as a poison. Avicenna describes several delivery methods and recommendations for drug doses. This classic text was translated into Latin in 1175 and later into many other languages ​​and remained authoritative until the 19th century. ? Erafeddin Sabuncuo? lu uses opium in the 14th century Ottoman Empire to treat migraine headaches, sciatica, and other painful diseases.
Reintroduction to Western medicine
The 5th century Pseudo-Apuleius manuscript of the 10th and 11th centuries refers to the use of wild poppy Papaver agreste or Papaver rhoeas (identified as P. Silvaticum ) instead of P. somniferum to induce sleep and relieve pain.
The use of Paracelsus laudanum was introduced to Western medicine in 1527, when Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, better known as Paracelsus, returned from his wandering Arabian journey with the famous sword, in which he kept the "Rocks of Eternity" from opium thebaicum, orange juice, and "golden juice". The name "Paracelsus" is a pseudonym that signifies him as or better than Aulus Cornelius Celsus, whose text, which describes the use of opium or similar preparations, has recently been translated and reintroduced into medieval Europe. The Canon of Medicine , Paracelsus's standard medical textbook burned in a public bonfire three weeks after being appointed professor at the University of Basel, also illustrates the use of opium, although many Latin translations are of poor quality. Laudanum ("praiseworthy") was originally a 16th-century term for drugs associated with certain doctors who were widely regarded as good, but became the standard as "opium tincture", the solution of opium in ethanol, which Paracelsus has credited with developing. During his lifetime, Paracelsus was seen as an adventurer who challenged contemporary medicine mercenaries and medicines with dangerous chemical therapies, but his therapy marked a turning point in Western medicine. In the 1660s, laudanum was recommended for pain, sleeplessness, and diarrhea by Thomas Sydenham, the famous "English father of medicine" or "Hippocrates UK", to whom quoted, "Among the medicines that have pleasing God Almighty to give to humans to alleviate their suffering, there is nothing so universal and highly efficacious as opium. "The use of opium as a medicine-all reflected in the mithridathum formulation described in 1728 Chambers Cyclopedia , which includes true opium in the mix. Furthermore, laudanum became the basis of many popular 19th century patents.
Compared to other chemicals available to 18th-century ordinary physicians, opium is a benign alternative to arsenic, mercury, or anesthetic, and it is very successful in alleviating various diseases. Because constipation is often produced by opium consumption, it is one of the most effective treatments for cholera, dysentery, and diarrhea. As a cough suppressant, opium is used to treat bronchitis, tuberculosis, and other respiratory diseases. Opium is also prescribed for rheumatism and insomnia. Medical textbooks even recommend their use by healthy people, to "optimize the internal balance of the human body".
During the 18th century, opium was found to be a good remedy for neurological disorders. Due to its sedative and sedative nature, it is used to calm their minds with psychosis, help with people who are considered mad, and also to help treat patients with insomnia. However, despite the value of the drug in this case, it is noted that in cases of psychosis, it can cause anger or depression, and because of the effects of drug euphoria, it can cause depressed patients to become more depressed after the effect is reduced because they will get used to being tall.
The use of standard medical opium survived well until the 19th century. US President William Henry Harrison was treated with opium in 1841, and in the American Civil War, the Union Army used 79,000 kilograms (2.8 ÃÆ'â € 10 ^ 6 o oz) of tincture and opium powder and about 500,000 opium pills. During this period of popularity, users call the "God's Own Medicine" opium.
One reason for the increased consumption of opium in the United States during the 19th century was the prescription and expenditure of legal opiates by doctors and pharmacists for women with "female complaints" (mostly for relieving pain and menstrual hysteria). Because opiates are viewed more humanly than punishment or restraint, they are often used to treat the mentally ill. Between 150,000 and 200,000 opiate addicts live in the United States at the end of the 19th century and between two-thirds and three-quarters of these addicts are women.
Opium addiction at the end of the 19th century accepted the definition of heredity. George Beard in 1869 proposed his theory of neurasthenia, a deficiency of the hereditary nervous system that can affect a person becoming addicted. Neurasthenia is increasingly bound up in medical rhetoric for "nervous fatigue" suffered by many white-collar workers in the increasingly busy lives of the US and the industry - possibly the most potential physician clients.
Use of recreation in Europe, the Middle East and the United States (11th century to 19th)
Soldiers who returned from the crusade of the eleventh century brought opium with them. Opium is said to have been used for recreational purposes from the 14th century onwards in the Muslim community. The Ottoman and European testimonies confirm that from the 16th to the 19th century Anatolian opium was eaten in Constantinople as much as it was exported to Europe. In 1573, for example, a Venetian visitor to the Ottoman Empire observed many Turkic natives of Constantinople who regularly drank "certain black water made with opium" that made them feel good, but they became very addicted, if they tried to leave without, they will "quickly die". From drinking it, the dervishes claim that the drugs give them a glimpse of the future happiness. Indeed, Turkey supplies the West with opium long before China and India.
Thomas de Quincey's Confessions of the English Opium-Eater (1822), one of the first and most famous literary accounts of opium addiction, written from the point of view of an addict, detailing the joys and dangers of medicine. In this book, not the Ottomans, or the Chinese, the addict about who he wrote, but the British opium user: "I question whether any Turk, from all who have entered the poppy-eating paradise, can have half the fun I have." Quincey writes of the great Romantic English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834), whose "Kubla Khan" is also widely considered a poetry of opium experience. Coleridge began using opium in 1791 after developing jaundice and rheumatic fever, and became a full addict after a severe illness in 1801, requiring 80-100 drops of laudanum daily.
Broad textual and image sources also show that opium cultivation and opium consumption are widespread in Safavid Iran and Mughal India.
China
In China, the use of recreation began in the 15th century, but was limited by scarcity and cost. Opium trade became more regular in the 17th century, when it was mixed with tobacco to smoke, and addiction was first known. Prior to the arrival of the tobacco pipe, opium was only taken orally; when smoked, the drug has a much stronger effect, and the addiction effect is greatly magnified. The ban on opium in China began in 1729, but was followed by almost two centuries of increased use of opium. China has a positive balance in trade with Britain, which led to a decline in British silver stocks. Therefore, the British tried to encourage the use of Chinese opium to improve their balance, and they sent it from the Indian provinces under British control. In India, its cultivation, as well as manufacturing and traffic to China, is subject to the British East India Company (BEIC), as a tight monopoly of the British government. Indian farmers are forced by British East India companies to grow opium against their will, often using a combination of tactics and strong hand debt. There is a wide and complex BEIC system involved in overseeing and managing opium production and distribution in India. The massive destruction of opium by Emperor Daoguang's Chinese envoy in an attempt to halt the import of opium led to the First Opium War (1839-1842), in which England defeated China. After 1860, opium usage continued to increase with widespread domestic production in China. In 1905, about 25 percent of the male population was a regular consumer of the drug. The use of opium recreation elsewhere in the world remained rare until the end of the 19th century, as demonstrated by ambivalent reports of opium use.
The global setting of opium begins with the stigmatization of Chinese immigrants and opium nests in San Francisco, California. This led quickly to the city's order in the 1870s and the establishment of the International Opium Commission in 1909. During this period, the portrayal of opium in literature became grubby and violent. British opium trade is largely superseded by domestic Chinese production. Refined morphine and heroin become widely available for injection and opiate-containing patent medications reach the peak in recreational use. Opium was banned in many countries during the early 20th century, leading to a pattern of modern opium production as a precursor to illegal drugs or prescribed legal prescriptions strictly. Illegal opium production, now dominated by Afghanistan, was destroyed in 2000, when production was banned by the Taliban, but has risen steadily since the fall of the Taliban and western occupation in 2001 and during the war in Afghanistan. Worldwide production in 2006 was 6610 metric tons - about one fifth of the production rate in 1906.
Use of recreation in China
The clearest description of the use of opium as a recreational medicine in China comes from Xu Boling, who wrote in 1483 that opium "is mainly used to help masculinity, strengthen sperm and restore strength", and that it "enhances the art of alchemists, sex women and courts". He also described an expedition sent by the Ming Dynasty of Emperor Chenghua in 1483 to obtain opium at "same as gold" prices in Hainan, Fujian, Zhejiang, Sichuan and Shaanxi, where close to the western area of ​​Xiyu. A century later, Li Shizhen noted the standard medical use of opium in his famous book Compendium of Materia Medica (1578), but also wrote that "laymen use it for the art of sex," in particular the ability to "catch semen emissions". The sex-opium association continued in China until the late 19th century.
Smoking opium began as a privilege of the elite and remained a great luxury to the early 19th century. However, in 1861, Wang Tao wrote that opium was used even by wealthy farmers, and even a small village without a rice shop would have a shop where the opium was sold.
Smoking opium is the cause of tobacco smoking and may be driven by a brief ban on tobacco smoking by Ming emperors. The ban ended in 1644 with the arrival of the Qing dynasty, which encouraged smokers to mingle with the growing number of opium. In 1705, Wang Shizhen wrote, "now, from nobles and men to slaves and women, all addicted to tobacco." Tobacco at that time was often mixed with other herbs (this continued with clove cigarettes into modern times), and opium was one component in the mix. Tobacco mixed with opium is called madak (or worm ) and became popular throughout China and its seafaring trading partners (such as Taiwan, Java and the Philippines) in the 17th century. In 1712, Engelbert Kaempfer described the addiction
Partly encouraged by the 1729 ban on madak , which initially effectively liberated pure opium as a potential drug product, pure opium smoking became more popular in the 18th century. In 1736, pure opium smoking was described by Huang Shujing, involving a silver-framed bamboo pipe, filled with palm and hair slices, fed by a clay bowl in which liquid opium clumps were held above the flame of an oil lamp. This elaborate procedure, which requires the maintenance of opium pots at the right temperature for clumps to be pricked with needle-shaped needles for smoking, forms the basis of "paste-scooping" by servant girls who can become prostitutes because there is a chance.
Chinese diaspora
The Chinese Diaspora (1800-to 1949) first began in the 19th century due to hunger and political upheaval, as well as rumors of wealth to be had outside Southeast Asia. Chinese emigrants to cities like San Francisco, London, and New York took them by means of opium smoking, and the social tradition of opium nests. The Indian Diaspora distributes opium-eater in the same way, and both social groups survive as "sailors" and "coolies" (unskilled laborers). French sailors provided a large group of other opium smokers, once accustomed to French Indochina, where the drug was promoted and monopolized by the colonial government as a source of income. Among white Europeans, opium is more often consumed as a laudanum or patent medicines. The British Alliance of Opium Law of 1878 formalized ethnic restrictions on the use of opium, limiting the sale of recreational opium to register Indian opium poppers and Chinese opium-smokers alone and prohibit its sale to Burmese workers. Likewise, American law seeks to restrain immigrant addiction by banning Chinese from opium smoking in the presence of white people.
Due to the low social status of immigrant workers, contemporary authors and the media have little difficulty describing opium nests as representative seats, white slavery, gambling, knives and gunfights, and sources for drugs that cause lethal overdoses, with potential addicts and destructive populations White skin. In 1919, anti-Chinese riots attacked Limehouse, London's Chinatown. The Chinese were deported for playing keno and sentenced to forced labor for possession of opium. Because of this, both immigrant populations and opium social usage fall to decline. However, apart from the horrible literary tales, on the contrary, 19th century London was not a poppy-smoking den. The total lack of photographic evidence of the smoking addiction in the UK, compared to the relative abundance of historical photographs depicting opium smoking in North America and France, suggests the illusionary opiate of Limehouse opium is little more than a fantasy on the side of British writers of the day, who intended to insult the their readers while crashing into the "yellow hazard" threat.
Prohibition and conflict in China
The prohibition of opium began in 1729, when Emperor Qing Yongzheng, disturbed by smoking madak in court and running the government's role to uphold Confucian values, formally banned the sale of opium, except for a small amount of drug of purpose. The ban punishes sellers and opium guards, but not drug users. Opium was banned completely in 1799, and this prohibition continued until 1860.
During the Qing dynasty, China opened up for foreign trade under the Canton System through the port of Guangzhou (Canton), with merchants from the East India Company visiting ports in the 1690s. Due to the increasing demand of the British towards Chinese tea and the lack of Chinese Emperor's interest in British commodities besides silver, British merchants use opium trade as a high-value commodity not enough for China. British merchants have bought a small amount of opium from India for trade since Ralph Fitch first visited in the mid-16th century. Opium trade is standardized, with raw opium ball production, 1.1-1.6 kg (2.4-3.5 pounds), 30% water content, wrapped in poppy leaves and petals, and sent in 60-65 kg (132 -143 lb) (one picul). Opium crates were sold at an auction in Calcutta with the understanding that independent buyers would then smuggle them into China.
After the Battle of 1757 from Plassey and the Battle of Buxar 1764, the British East India Company gained the power to act as a diwan of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha (See my company's rules in India). This allows the company to monopolize the production and export of opium in India, to encourage ryots to grow commercial crops of tilapia and opium with cash, and to ban "stockpiling" of rice. This strategy led to an increase in land tax to 50 percent of the value of the harvest and to double the profit of the East India Company in 1777. It is also claimed to have contributed to the starvation of 10 million people in the Bengal 1770 hunger Beginning in 1773, the British government began to impose oversight of its operations, and in response to the Indian Revolt of 1857, this policy culminated in the formation of direct rule over the presidencies and provinces of British India. Bengal opium is greatly appreciated, at twice the price of China's domestic product, which is considered to be of inferior quality.
Several competitions came from the newly independent United States, which began competing in Guangzhou, selling Turkish opium in the 1820s. Portuguese traders also brought opium from Malwa nations in independent western India, although by 1820, the British could restrict this trade by imposing "passing duty" on opium when forced to pass through Bombay to reach entrepot Although there was a drastic punishment and continued prohibition of opium until 1860, opium imports went up from 200 chests per year under Emperor Yongzheng to 1,000 under Emperor Qianlong, 4,000 under Emperor Jiaqing, and 30,000 under Emperor Daoguang. The sale of illegal opium became one of the world's most valuable single commodity trading and has been called "the longest and most systematic international crime of the modern era". Opium smuggling provides 15 to 20 percent of UK Royal revenues and simultaneously causes silver scarcity in China.
In response to the growing number of Chinese people becoming opium addicts, Emperor Qing Daoguang took a crackdown on halting the import of opium, including the seizure of cargo. In 1838, Chinese Commissioner Lin Zexu destroyed 20,000 opium crates in Guangzhou. Given that the opium crate is worth nearly US $ 1,000 in 1800, this is a huge economic loss. The Queen of England Victoria, who did not want to replace cheap opium with expensive silver, started the First Opium War in 1840, the British won Hong Kong and traded the first concession of a series of Unbalanced Agreements.
Opium trade led to strong animosity from British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone. As a Member of Parliament, Gladstone called it "the most cruel and horrible" referring to the opium trade between China and Indian Britain in particular. Gladstone vigorously opposed the two British Opium Wars in China in the First Opium War which began in 1840 and the Second Opium War began in 1857, denounced British violence against China, and strongly opposed the British opium trade to China. Gladstone denounced him as the "Opium War of Palmerston" and said he felt "fearful of God's judgment on England for our national crimes against China" in May 1840. A famous speech was made by Gladstone in Parliament against the First Opium War. Gladstone criticized it as "a more unfair war in its origin, a war more calculated in its progress to cover this country with a permanent disgrace". His hostility toward opium comes from the opium effect brought by his brother Helen. Because of the First Opium war brought by Palmerston, there was an initial aversion to joining the Peel government in the Gladstone section before 1841.
Following China's defeat in the Second Opium War in 1858, China was forced to legalize opium and begin massive domestic production. The import of opium peaked in 1879 at 6,700 tons, and in 1906, China produced 85 percent of the world's opium, about 35,000 tons, and 27 percent of the adult male population regularly used opium? -? 13.5 million people consume 39,000 tons of opium every year. From 1880 to the beginning of the Communist era, the British sought to ban the use of opiate in China, but it effectively promoted the use of morphine, heroin, and cocaine, which further exacerbated the problem of addiction.
Scientific evidence of the destructive nature of opium use was largely undocumented in the 1890s, when Chinese Protestant missioners decided to strengthen their opposition to trade by collecting data that would indicate the dangers of the drug. Faced with the many problems associated with Chinese Christianity with opium, partly due to the arrival of early Protestant missionaries at the opium scissors, at the Shanghai Missionary Conference of 1890, they agreed to establish the Permanent Committee for the Promotion of the Opium Society in an effort to overcome this problem and arouse public opinion on trade opium. The committee members are John Glasgow Kerr, MD, American Presbyterian Mission in Canton; B.C. Atterbury, MD, American Presbyterian Mission in Peking; Archdeacon Arthur E. Moule, Missionary Society Church in Shanghai; Henry Whitney, MD, US Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions at Foochow; Rev. Samuel Clarke, China's Inland Mission in Kweiyang; Reverend Arthur Gostick Shorrock, British Baptist Mission in Taiyuan; and Reverend Griffith John, London Mission Community in Hankow. These missionaries were generally angry over the Royal Government Commission of England to Candu who visited India but not China. Therefore, missionaries first organized the Anti-Opium League in China among their peers in every mission office in China. American Missionary Hampden Coit DuBose acted as first president. The organization, which has selected national officers and held annual national meetings, was instrumental in collecting data from every Western-trained medical doctor in China, later published as William Hector Park compiled more than 100 physicians' opinion on the Use of Opium in China (Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press, 1899). Most of these doctors are missionaries; The survey also includes doctors who practice private practice, particularly in Shanghai and Hong Kong, as well as Chinese who have been trained in medical schools in Western countries. In Britain, the home director of China's Inland Mission, Benjamin Broomhall, is an active opponent of the opium trade, writing two books to promote the ban on opium: The truth about Smoking Opium and The Chinese Opium Smoker . In 1888, Broomhall formed and became secretary of the Christian Union for the Democratic Occupation of the United Kingdom with Opium Traffic and its period editor, National Truth. He lobbied the British Parliament to stop the opium trade. He and James Laidlaw Maxwell appealed to the London Missionary Conference of 1888 and the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of 1910 to condemn the continuation of trade. When Broomhall was dying, his son Marshall read to him from The Welcome news that the agreement had been signed to ensure the end of the opium trade within two years.
China's official resistance to opium was renewed on September 20, 1906, with an anti-nuclear initiative intended to eliminate drug problems in 10 years. The program relies on changes in public sentiment towards opium, with mass meetings in which opium fixtures are publicly burned, as well as coercive legal actions and granting police powers to organizations such as the Fujian Anti-Opium Society. Smokers are required to register for licenses as they gradually reduce drug rations. Action against opium farmers centers on a highly repressive enforcement incarnation in which rural populations have their property destroyed, their land confiscated and/or openly tortured, humiliated and executed. Addicts sometimes switch to missionaries for their addiction treatment, although many connect these strangers with the drug trade. The program was counted as a major success, with the cessation of British direct opium exports to China (but not Hong Kong) and most provinces declared free of opium production. Nevertheless, the success of the program was only temporary, with the rapidly increasing use of opium during the chaos after Yuan Shikai's death in 1916. Opium farming also increased, peaking in 1930 when the League of Nations voted China as a forbidden major source. opium in East and Southeast Asia. Many local power holders facilitate trade during this period to finance conflicts over territory and political campaigns. In some areas, food crops are eradicated to make opium, contributing to famine in Kweichow and Shensi provinces between 1921 and 1923, and food deficits in other provinces.
Beginning in 1915, Chinese nationalist groups came to describe the period of military loss and the Unequal Treaty as the "National Culprit Century", which was then defined ending with the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949.
In the northern provinces of Ningxia and Suiyuan in China, Chinese Muslim General Ma Fuxiang are both banned and involved in the opium trade. It is hoped that Ma Fuxiang will improve the situation, because Chinese Muslims are famous for opposing smoking opium. Ma Fuxiang officially banned opium and made it illegal in Ningxia, but Guominjun canceled its policy; in 1933, people from every level of society abused drugs, and Ningxia was left in poverty. In 1923, a Bank of China officer from Baotou found that Ma Fuxiang assisted in the poppy drug trade that helped finance his military expenses. He acquired $ 2 span from the burden of the sale in 1923. General Ma had used a bank, a branch of the Chinese government, to organize his eyes silver money to be transported to Baotou to use it to sponsor trade.
Opium trade under the Chinese Communist Party was important for its finances in the 1940s. Diary Peter Vladimirov provides first-hand accounts. Chen Yung-Fa provides a detailed historical record of how opium trade is so important to Yan'an's economy during this period. Mitsubishi and Mitsui were involved in the opium trade during the Japanese occupation of China.
Mao Zedong's government was generally credited with the abolition of consumption and opium production during the 1950s by using uncontrolled repression and social reform. Ten million addicts are forced to perform mandatory maintenance, dealers are executed, and opium-producing areas are planted with new crops. The remaining opium production shifts south of the Chinese border into the Golden Triangle region. The remaining opium trade mainly served Southeast Asia but spread to American troops during the Vietnam War, with 20 per cent of soldiers considering themselves addicted during the height of the epidemic in 1971. In 2003, China was estimated to have four million regular drug users. and one million registered drug addicts.
Ban outside China
There were no legal restrictions on the importation or use of opium in the United States until the San Francisco Ordinance of Opium, which banned the nest for public opium smoking in 1875, a measure fueled by anti-Chinese sentiments and the perception that whites had begun to frequently go into nest. This is followed by California law 1891 which requires narcotics to carry warning labels and that their sales are recorded in the registry; The amendments to the California Pharmacy and Poison Act in 1907 made it a crime to sell opiates without a prescription, and a ban on the possession of opium or opium pipe in 1909 came into effect.
At the US federal level, legal action taken reflects constitutional restrictions under the aforementioned doctrine of power before the reinterpretation of the trade clause, which does not allow the federal government to impose arbitrary restrictions, but permits arbitrary taxation. Beginning in 1883, opium imports were taxed at US $ 6 to US $ 300 per pound, until the 1909 Opium Exclusion Act prohibited the import of opium altogether. In the same way, the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act of 1914, graduating in the fulfillment of the 1912 International Opium Convention, nominally places taxes on the distribution of opiates, but is used as a prohibition of drug de facto. Today, opium is regulated by the Drug Enforcement Administration under the Controlled Substance Act.
After the issuance of the Australian Colonial law in 1895, the Queensland Aboriginal Protection and Restrictions on the Sale of the Opium Act of 1897 discussed the opium addiction among Aboriginal people, although it soon became a public vehicle for depriving their basic rights with administrative arrangements. By 1905 all Australian states and territories had passed a similar law prohibiting the sale of opium. Smoking and possession were banned in 1908.
The hardening of Canadian attitudes toward Chinese opiate users and fear of spreading drugs into white populations led to the effective criminalization of opium for nonmedical use in Canada between 1908 and the mid 1920s.
In 1909, the International Opium Commission was established, and by 1914, 34 countries had agreed that the production and import of opium should be reduced. In 1924, 62 countries participated in the Commission meetings. Furthermore, this role is forwarded to the League of Nations, and all signatory countries agree to prohibit the import, sale, distribution, export and use of all narcotic drugs, except for medical and scientific purposes. This role is then taken by the United Nations International Narcotics Control Board under Article 23 of the Single Convention on Narcotics Drugs, and subsequently under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. A poppy producing country is required to appoint a government agency to take possession of legally owned opium crops as soon as possible after harvest and to conduct all major trade and exports through the agency.
Rules in UK and USA
Prior to 1920, regulations in the UK were controlled by pharmacists. The found pharmacist has given opium to unlawful causes and anyone found to have sold opium without the proper qualifications will be prosecuted. Because of the passing of Rolleston Act in England in 1926, doctors may prescribe opiates such as morphine and heroin on their own if they feel their patients are showing medical needs. Because addiction is seen as a medical problem and not a penchant, doctors are allowed to let patients escape from opiates rather than cutting off the use of opiates altogether. The passing of the Rolleston Act puts control of the use of opium in the hands of doctors, not pharmacists. Later in the 20th century, opiate addiction, especially heroin in young people, is on the rise and sales and prescription opiates are limited to doctors in care centers. If these doctors are found to prescribe opioids for no reason, then they may lose their license to practice or prescribe drugs. Opium abuse in the United States began in the late 19th century and was largely stigmatized with Chinese immigrants. During this time the use of opium had a slight negative connotation and was used freely until 1882 when a law was passed to restrict the smoking addiction to certain nests. Until a full ban of opium-based products came into effect right after the turn of the century, doctors in the US consider opium as a miracle drug that can help many diseases. Therefore, the prohibition of such products is more a result of negative connotations of its use and distribution by Chinese immigrants persecuted for a certain period in history. However, in the 19th century, there was a physician by the name of Hamilton Wright who worked to reduce the use of opium in the US by applying the Harrison Act to the congress. The law imposes taxes and restrictions on the sale and prescription of opium, as well as attempts to stigmatize opium poppy and its derivatives as "demonic drugs", to try and frighten people from them. This action and the stigma of demonic medicine on opiate, causing the criminalization of people using opium-based products. It makes the use and possession of opium and its derivatives illegal. This restriction was recently redefined by the Federal Controlled Substances Act of 1970.
historic use of the 20th century
During the Communist era in Eastern Europe, poppy stalks sold in bundles by farmers were processed by users with household chemicals to make compounds ("Polish heroin"), and poppy seeds were used to produce > koknar. , opium.
Immortality
Globally, opium has gradually been replaced by a variety of pure opioids, semi synthetics, and synthetics with increasingly strong effects, and by other general anesthesia. This process began in 1804, when Friedrich Wilhelm Adam SertÃÆ'¼rner first isolated morphine from opium poppy. This process continued until 1817, when SertÃÆ'¼rner published pure morphine isolation from opium after at least thirteen years of research and almost catastrophic experiments on him and three boys. The great advantage of purified morphine is that a patient can be treated with a known dose - whereas with raw plant ingredients, such as Gabriel Fallopius once complained, "if soporifik is weak they do not help, if they are strong they are very dangerous." Morphine is the first drug isolated from natural products, and this success encourages the isolation of other alkaloids: in 1820, isolation of noskapin, strychnine, veratrine, colchicine, caffeine, and quinine was reported. The sale of morphine began in 1827, by Heinrich Emanuel Merck of Darmstadt, and helped him expand his family's pharmacy to the pharmaceutical company Merck KGaA.
Codeine was isolated in 1832 by Pierre Jean Robiquet.
The use of diethyl ether and chloroform for general anesthesia began in 1846-1847, and rapidly replaced the use of tropane opio and alkaloids from Solanaceae due to their relative safety.
Heroin, the first semi-synthetic opioid, was first synthesized in 1874, but was not pursued until rediscovery in 1897 by Felix Hoffmann at the Bayer pharmaceutical company in Elberfeld, Germany. From 1898 to 1910 heroin was marketed as a substitute for non-addictive morphine and cough medicine for children. Because the lethal dose of heroin is seen as a hundred times greater than its effective dose, heroin is advertised as a safer alternative than other opioids. In 1902, sales reached 5 percent of corporate profits, and "heroinism" has attracted media attention. Oxycodone, a code-like thebaine derivative, was introduced by Bayer in 1916 and promoted as a less addictive analgesic. Preparation of drugs such as oxycodone with paracetamol and oxycodone extended release remain popular to this day.
Various synthetic opioids such as methadone (1937), pethidine (1939), fentanyl (late 1950s), and derivatives have been introduced, and each is preferred for certain specialized applications. Nevertheless, morphine remains the drug of choice for American combat medical officers, who carry a syrettes pack containing 16 milligrams each for use on severely injured soldiers. No drug is found that can counter the effects of opioid pain relief without also doubling their addictive potential.
Maps Opium
Modern production and usage
Papaver somniferum
The flower of opium is a popular and attractive garden plant, whose flowers vary greatly in color, size and shape. Small amounts of domestic cultivation in private gardens are usually not subject to legal control. In part, this tolerance reflects variations in potential addiction. The cultivars for opium production, Papaver somniferum L. elite, contain 91.2 percent of morphine, codeine, and thebaine in the latex alkaloids, whereas in the latex of the "Marianne" cultivar latex, these three alkaloids account for only 14.0 percent. Alkaloids are left in the last cultivars mainly narcotoline and noscapine.
Seed capsules can be dried and used for decoration, but also contain morphine, codeine, and other alkaloids. These legumes can be boiled in water to produce bitter tea that causes long lasting poisoning (See Poppy Tea) . If left to mature, poppy fruit (poppy straw) can be destroyed and used to produce lower morphinans. In poppies with mutagenesis and large-scale selection, researchers have been able to use poppy straw to obtain large amounts of oripavine, opioid precursors and antagonists such as naltrexone. Although thousands of years older, the production of poppy head decoctions can be seen as a quick and dirty variant of the opium straw process of KÃÆ'¡bÃÆ'¡y, which since its release in 1930 has been the primary method for obtaining official opium alkaloids worldwide, as discussed in Morphine.
Poppy seeds are common and delicious toppings for bread and cakes. One gram of poppy seed contains up to 33 micrograms of morphine and 14 micrograms of codeine, and Substance Abuse and Administration of Mental Health Services in the United States previously mandated that all drug screening laboratories use standard cutoff of 300 nanograms per milliliter in urine samples. One poppy seed roll (0.76 grams of seed) usually does not produce a positive drug test, but a positive result is observed from eating two rolls. A piece of poppy seed cake containing almost five grams of seed per slice produces a positive result for 24 hours. These results are seen as a false positive indication of drug use and are the basis of legal defense. On November 30, 1998, the standard cutoff was increased to 2000 nanograms (two micrograms) per milliliter. Confirmations by gas chromatographic mass spectrometry will distinguish between opium and variants including poppy seeds, heroin, and morphine and codeine drugs by measuring morphine: the codeine ratio and finding the presence of noskapine and acetylcodeine, the latter found only illegally producing heroin, and metabolites heroin like 6-monoacetylmorphine.
Harvesting and processing
When planted for opium production, the ripe poppy rind is molded by a sharp knife when carefully chosen so that rain, wind and dew can not damage white latex exudation, milk, usually in the afternoon. The incision is made when the pod is raw, with nothing more than a yellow color, and should be shallow to avoid penetrating the hollow space or loculi when cutting into the lactive vessels. In Subcontinent India, Afghanistan, Central Asia and Iran, special tools used to make incisions are called nushtar or "nishtar" (from Persian, meaning lancet) and carry three or four separate three-millimeter blades, which printed onto the top of the pod. The incisions are made three or four times at intervals of two to three days, and each time "poppy tears", which dries to a sticky brown resin, are collected the next morning. One acre harvested in this way can produce three to five kilograms of raw opium. In the Soviet Union, pods are usually printed horizontally, and opium is collected three times, or one or two collections followed by opiate isolation from mature capsules. The poppy oil flower, an alternative strain of P. somniferum , is also used for the production of opiates from capsules and stems. The traditional Chinese method of harvesting latex opium involves cutting the head and piercing them with rough needles and then collecting dry opium 24 to 48 hours later.
Raw opium can be sold to traders or brokers on the black market, but usually do not travel far from the field before being refined to morphine base , because the raw jelly-like jelly-like opium is bulkier. and more difficult to smuggle. Rough laboratories in the field are able to refine opium to morphine based on simple acid-base extraction. Sticky paste, chocolate, and morphine are pressed into bricks and dried with sunlight, and can be smoked, prepared in other forms or processed into heroin.
Other preparation methods (other than smoking), including processing into ordinary opium tincture ( tinctura opii ), laudanum, paregoric (tinctura opii camphorata) herbs (eg, vinum opii ), opium powders (opii puli opii), opium syrup (opii syrup
Heroin is preferred because of increased potency. One study in postaddicts finds heroin to be about 2.2 times stronger than heavy morphine of the same duration; on this relative amount, they can distinguish the drug subjectively but have no preference. Heroin is also found to be twice as strong as morphine in surgical anesthesia. Morphine is converted to heroin by a simple chemical reaction with acetic anhydride, followed by purification. Especially in Mexican production, opium can be converted directly into "black tar heroin" in a simplified procedure. This form dominates in western Mississippi. With respect to other heroin preparations, it has been associated with dramatically reduced rates of HIV transmission among injecting drug users (4 percent in Los Angeles vs. 40 percent in New York) due to technical injection requirements, although it is also associated with the risk of venous and necrotizing sclerosis fasciitis is greater.
Illegal production
Opium production has fallen since 1906, when 41,000 tonnes were produced, but since 39,000 tonnes of opium were consumed in China, overall use worldwide is much lower. These numbers from 1906 have been criticized as overestimate. In 1980, 2,000 tons of opium supplied all legal and illegal uses. Recently, opium production has increased rapidly, exceeding 5,000 tons in 2002 and reaching 8,600 tons in Afghanistan and 840 tons in the Golden Triangle in 2014. Production is expected to increase by 2015 because better new seeds have been brought to Afghanistan. The World Health Organization estimates that opium production now needs to increase fivefold to take into account global medical needs as a whole.
In 2002, the price of one kilogram of opium was US $ 300 for farmers, US $ 800 for buyers in Afghanistan, and US $ 16,000 on the road - the road in Europe before conversion became heroin.
Afghanistan is currently the leading producer of narcotics. After regularly producing 70 percent of the world's opium, Afghanistan reduced production to 74 tons per year under a ban by the Taliban in 2000, a move that reduced production by 94 percent. A year later, after US and British troops invaded Afghanistan, removed the Taliban and installed an interim government, the cultivated land jumped back to 285 square miles (740 km 2 ), with Afghanistan replacing Burma being the world's largest opium producer once again. The country's opium production has grown substantially since then, reaching its highest level throughout 2006. According to DEA statistics, the production of artificial dried opium in Afghanistan increased to 1,278 tons in 2002, more than doubling in 2003, and nearly doubling again during 2004. By the end of 2004, the US government estimated that 206,000 hectares were under opium cultivation, 4.5 percent of the country's total agricultural land, and produced 4,200 metric tons of opium, 76 percent of the world's supply, accounting for 60 percent of the product Afghanistan's gross domestic product. In 2006, the UN Office for Drugs and Crime estimates production has increased 59 percent to 165,000 hectares (407,000 hectares) in cultivation, generating 6,100 tons of opium, 82 percent of world supply. The resulting heroin value is estimated to be US $ 3.5 billion , in which Afghan farmers are estimated to have received US $ 700 million in revenue. For farmers, yields can be ten times more profitable than wheat. Opium prices are approximately US $ 138 per kilo. Opium production has led to increased tensions in Afghan villages. Although direct conflict has not occurred, the opinion of the new class of wealthy youths involved in opium trade goes against people from traditional village leaders.
An increasingly large opium fraction is processed into a base of morphine and heroin in a drug laboratory in Afghanistan. Although a series of international chemical controls are designed to limit the availability of acetic anhydride, it enters the state, perhaps through a non-participating Central Asian neighbor. The law of counternarcotics passed in December 2005 requires Afghanistan to develop registrars or regulations to track, store, and possess acetic anhydride.
In addition to Afghanistan, smaller quantities of opium are produced in Pakistan, the Golden Triangle region of Southeast Asia (mainly Burma), Colombia, Guatemala and Mexico.
Chinese production mainly trade with and profit from North America. In 2002, they tried to expand through the eastern United States. In the post-September 11 era, cross-border trade became difficult and as new international law was created, opium trade became more widespread. Power shifts from smugglers from far to high and opium traders. Outsourcing is a big factor for survival for many smugglers and opium farmers.
In South American countries, opium flowers are technically illegal, but still appear in some nurseries as ornamental plants.
Legal production
Production of legal opium is permissible under the UN Single Convention on Narcotics Drugs and other international drug treaties, subject to strict supervision by law enforcement agencies of each country. The main legal production method is the Gregory process, in which all poppies, except roots and leaves, are mashed and boiled in a dilute acid solution. The alkaloids are then recovered by acid-base extraction and purified. This process was developed in the UK during World War II, when the shortage of many important future medicines encouraged innovation in pharmaceutical processing.
The production of legal opium in India is much more traditional. In 2008, opium was collected by farmers licensed to grow a 0.1 hectare (0.25 hectare) poppy flower, which retained their required license to sell 56 kilograms of unrefined raw opium paste. The price of opium paste is set by the government in accordance with the quality and quantity offered. An average of about 1500 rupees ( US $ 29 ) per kilogram. Some extra money is made by drying poppy heads and collecting poppy seeds, and a small portion of opium outside the quota can be consumed locally or diverted to the black market. The opium pasta is dried and processed into a government opium and alkaloid factory before packing into a 60 kilogram case for export. Purification of chemical constituents is done in India for domestic production, but usually done overseas by foreign importers.
The import of legal opium from India and Turkey is done by Mallinckrodt, Noramco, Abbott Laboratories, Purdue Pharma, and Cody Laboratories Inc. in the United States, and legal opium production is done by GlaxoSmithKline, Johnson & amp; Johnson, Johnson Matthey, and Mayne in Tasmania, Australia; Sanofi Aventis in France; Shionogi Pharmaceutical in Japan; and MacFarlan Smith in the UK. The UN Agreement requires that each country submit an annual report to the International Narcotics Control Agency, stating that the actual consumption of many classes of drug is overseen and opioids and project the required amount for the following year. This is to allow consumption trends to be monitored and production quotas allocated.
The latest proposal of the European Senlis Council hopes to solve the problems caused by the large quantity of illegally-produced opium in Afghanistan, which is largely converted to heroin and smuggled for sale in Europe and the United States. This proposal is to permit Afghan farmers to produce opium for the world pharmaceutical market, thereby resolving another problem, the chronic potential analgesic abuse that is needed in developing countries. Part of the proposal is to address the "80-20 rule" that requires the US to buy 80 percent of its legal opium from India and Turkey to enter Afghanistan, by building a second-rate control system that complements current INCB arrangements. supply and demand systems by providing poppy-based drugs to countries that are unable to meet their demands under current regulations. Senlis arranged a conference in Kabul that brought in drug policy experts from around the world to meet with Afghan government officials to discuss internal security, corruption issues and legal issues in Afghanistan. In June 2007, the Council launched the "Poppy for Medicines" project that provides a technical blueprint for the implementation of an integrated control system in Afghan village-based poppy for drug projects: the idea promotes economic diversification by diverting the proceeds from legal cultivation. from poppy and poppy-based medicine production (see Senlis Council). There was criticism of the results of the Senlisian report by Macfarlan Smith, who argued that although they produced morphine in Europe, they were never asked to contribute to the report.
Cultivation in England
In late 2006, the British government allowed pharmaceutical company MacFarlan Smith (Johnson Matthey company) to cultivate opium in Britain for drug reasons, after Macfarlan Smith's main source, India, decided to raise the price of export opium sap. This move was well received by British farmers, with a large opium field located in Didcot, England. The British government opposes the Home Office's proposal that opium cultivation be passed in Afghanistan for exports to Britain, helping to reduce poverty and internal combat while helping the NHS to meet the high demand for morphine and heroin. The cultivation of opium opium in the UK does not require a license, but a license is needed for those who want to extract opium for drug products.
Consumption
In the industrial world, the United States is the world's largest recipe opioid consumer, with Italy one of the lowest due to more stringent regulations about prescribing narcotics to relieve pain. Most opium imported into the United States is broken down into its alkaloid constituents, and whether legal or illegal, the most advanced drug use occurs with processed derivatives such as heroin, not with unrefined opium.
Intravenous opiate injection is most widely used: compared with injection, "chasing the dragon" (heating heroin with barbital on a sheet of paper), and madak and "ack ack" (smoking tobacco-containing cigarettes mixed with heroin powder) is only 40 percent and 20 percent efficient , each. One study of British heroin addicts found a 12-fold excess mortality ratio (1.8 percent of the group died per year). Most deaths from heroin are not caused by overdose per se , but in combination with other depressant drugs such as alcohol or benzodiazepines.
Opium smoking does not involve burning the material as imagined. Instead, the prepared opium is indirectly heated to the temperature at which the active alkaloids, especially morphine, is evaporated. In the past, smokers will use specially designed opium pipes that have removable pipes such as pottery pipes attached with metal fittings to long cylinder rods. A small pea sized "pills" the size of a pea will be placed on top of the pipe bowl, which is then heated by holding it over a poppy lamp, a special oil lamp with a different chimney-shaped chimney to drain the heat into a small area. Smokers will lie on their sides to guide the pipe-bowl and small poppy pills over the heat flow up from c
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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